Surveillance refers to covertly observing people in areas deemed hotspots of criminal activity. The tactic has vastly been used for decades as technology advances, with the main aim of collecting information by supervising the actions undertaken by targeted perpetrators, especially in enemy territory. While ancient techniques seemed radical, they have evolved significantly into easily executed modern ones. Today, organizations have developed a wide range of technologies for surveillance, from electronic monitoring to undercover operations.[1] These technologies can be categorized into three according to the type of surveillance they aid.
The first known form is direct or covert surveillance, which has been used since ancient times. In the earlier centuries, the technique involved sending spies into enemy territory and occasionally receiving information from them regarding the target’s plans. Unfortunately, the use of spies was reduced as they sometimes got compromised, especially when the covert mission involved infiltrating higher ranks.[2] Whenever the spies are detected, they often risk severe punishment, with some camps lynching such individuals. Direct surveillance has further been developed into undercover operations and three-person surveillance.
The second form of covert operations is pre-constructive surveillance, often done in public. This form of espionage was pioneered by creating the spyglass, which allowed for spying from a distance. Today, various forms of technology have been developed to improve it, including Stationery Technical Surveillance and fixed spying. The former usually involved the investigator installing a hidden camera to record activity in a public area.[3] The camera is often placed in a less conspicuous spot and set to record actions in the targeted area.
The third form of surveillance is reconstructive spying, usually involving reviewing information from gathered evidence. This form of spying has been crafted as technology advances, with the most common type involving hacking emails and wiretapping telephone and internet communication. In most democracies, this type of spying is engaged when the government intends to investigate criminal offenses and requires a court order. It remains one of the ideal ways to investigate crimes suspected to have been committed or those believed to be going on.
Although surveillance has been a valuable tool over the years to help organizations keep up with their enemies’ intentions, it has often been frowned upon. The main reason has been that its success relies on violating others’ privacy. As a result, most organizations and countries that practice surveillance do it covertly.[4] In journalism, surveillance is incompatible with existing policies and laws that protect communication from journalists as sources. The impact is even far-reaching in war-torn areas around the globe.[5] In such places, the incompatibilities cause serious discrepancies between activities by intelligence agencies, existing laws, and practices by the rest of the involved organizations. This paper looks at the impact of governmental and non-governmental surveillance on Palestinian journalists in Gaza, the West Bank, and East Jerusalem.
Surveillance of Palestinian Journalists
For decades, large-scale surveillance operations by governments have been deemed a hallmark of authoritarianism. The practice has been left to administrations that largely identify as communist. Even so, democracies have been reported to engage in the practice occasionally, although under extremely covert conditions. For most communist nations, it has already established a state of horror, and for the democracies that suspect undercover practice, it has continued to be met with great concern.
Although the Mass Surveillance practice has always been thought to provide a uniform gaze on target populations, with the power expected to touch everyone with equal magnitude, such is not always the case. In most surveilled populations, the impact of oppression is usually heaviest on the already disadvantaged groups. In other cases, the surveillance mechanisms are only implemented to keep track of certain factions that the authoritarian regimes consider threats. For instance, the Mass Surveillance implemented in Palestinian territories has always targeted journalists. In such a case, the target population is considered a threat because they can enlighten the oppressed magnitude, thereby risking the regime’s loss of control. Most fallen regimes have always owed their failure to the press. For instance, the uprising in Egypt materialized because of the information that journalists revealed to the people, including corruption, atrocities committed, and scandals. Although the Egyptian regime was authoritarian, it failed to suppress the media to full submission. However, the possibility of such uprisings has led to the stringent implementation of mass surveillance in the Palestinian Territories.
In Palestine, the surveillance scare had become reality decades back when the conflict began with their Israeli neighbors. Since the beginning of the feud over Gaza, Palestinians have been exposed to extensive persecution. They have generally been under constant surveillance as the Israeli occupation Forces monitor (IOF) their voices and movements. The IOF has since reigned terror on Palestinians in the Gaza strip, aiming to discourage autonomy and suppress their freedom of expression. Even worse treatment has been given to the journalists trying to cover the undertakings in the region. For them, the persecution goes beyond mere surveillance. Numerous cases have been reported since 2015 where Palestinian journalists are abducted and tortured. The magnitude of surveillance in the territories has increased in recent years as new technology is applied to track other actions by the public that would otherwise be considered subtle. For instance, the surveillance system in the region now monitors each social media post by Palestinians and tracks their physical location. Implementing these technologies has led to an upsurge in the number of impromptu raids by the Israeli occupation forces in recent years.
While outsiders may think that Palestinian journalists are persecuted by the Israeli army alone, that is not usually the case. According to them, apart from intimidation by the Israeli occupation Forces, they also face oppression from fellow Palestinians. For instance, in 2014, an official at the Hamas organization admitted to oppressing members of the press. The official claimed the motive to surveil the group was based on a hunch that they carried dangerous arms into Gaza. Although the report claimed that the organization only intimidated foreigners, Palestinian journalists have reported being in their crosshairs.
Israel is reported to have begun restricting movement by Palestinian journalists as early as 1987. At the time, the restrictions were based on abolishing the general exit permit. During the second intifada, the limits had been increased such that Palestinians were required to produce Israeli permits to move within Palestinian territories. By 2000, Palestinians enjoyed a bit of freedom of movement within the territories as long as they had a permit. However, things have changed drastically over the past few decades. As Israel continued to tighten the restrictions, obtaining these permits has become more cumbersome. For instance, bureaucratic procedures have been noted to lag more than before.
Palestinian journalists have suffered more than anyone else as service delivery continues to deteriorate. They have been subjected to more severe restrictions, and some are banned from traveling or moving to cover their stories. According to the Israeli administration, restrictions against Palestinian journalists have been informed by various incidents. They have cited various security incidents and claimed that Palestinian journalists have been notorious for publishing reports that undermine their policies. However, according to Palestinian journalists, their reports have been accurate in disseminating information about Israeli violations. Therefore, the difference in understanding of the referred incidents has led Israel to monitor Palestinians within their territories. Unfortunately, this resort has since led to the persecution of Palestinian journalists in the territories. In Gaza, Palestinian journalists have constantly faced oppression by the Hamas organization. In West Bank, they have faced intimidation by the Fatah-led Palestinian Authorities; in East Jerusalem, they face persecution by the Israeli Defence Forces.
Palestinian Journalists Surveilled by Palestinian Factions
The tense climate between Fatah-led Palestinian Authorities and Hamas has caused an increase in oppressive tactics in West Bank. In Gaza, the Hamas faction has been reported to target journalists affiliated with their rivals.[6] At the same time, those unaffiliated with Palestinian Authorities fall victim to oppression by the faction for criticizing their policies. For instance, in 2017, the group detained reporters from the Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation following a string of news reports he had done criticizing Qatar.[7] The faction took offense to the report since Qatar is their ally. The reporter was detained for over two months and charged in military court with harming the faction’s revolutionary unit.
The Hamas faction has also been weary of posts on social media platforms. For instance, in 2017, they arrested various Palestinians following Facebook posts that challenged their regime. One of the persons was arrested for posting an excerpt from Ghassan Kanafani, a Palestinian author criticizing the region’s undertakings that fuel the conflict. Such incidents are usually accompanied by torture by the Hamas police.[8] Their interrogations are usually tailored to fish out individuals who have been enlightened about the root of the conflict. For example, the individual arrested for posting an excerpt of Ghassan’s books was tortured to disclose other books they had read from the same author.
These extremist actions reveal that the organization surveils Palestinians living in Gaza and is hell-bent on suppressing their knowledge about the reasons for the constant conflict. Any Palestinian, especially journalists, are kept under constant watch to prevent them from disclosing any information that can cause an uproar from the oppressed population. As Hamas held an individual for posting a book excerpt, they were also reported to hunt down and arrest another journalist for questioning their humanity.[9] The journalist posted on Facebook a question to the organization’s group asking whether their children also slept on the floor as theirs did. In the arrest, the journalist was charged with misusing technology.
The motivation to detain and oppress Palestinians in Gaza has been to minimize cases of demonstration, as witnessed occasionally. Their target of journalists is mainly driven by the fear that they have the means to infiltrate their systems and expose them to the public.[10] By constantly arresting and detaining them, the organization has been starving the rest of the Palestinians living in Gaza of pertinent information directly affecting their lives. As a result, the rest of the citizens can only protest once something critical has occurred.
Palestinian Journalists Surveilled by Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) in West Bank
Similar to the case in Gaza, Palestinian Authorities in West Bank have been oppressing those affiliated with Hamas. Any outspoken individual the authorities consider to speak against the administration faces the risk of arrest and detention. The PA seems to oppress such individuals to instill fear among the Palestinians living in West Bank. For instance, in 2017, a Palestinian named Osama al-Nabrisi was arrested at least 15 times after being released from 12-year imprisonment.[11] The arrests are reported to follow allegations that he was involved with the Hamas bloc. The detention of residents has increased in recent years as more people become agitated about their lives.[12] However, the arrests are not only for local citizens. Similar to Gaza, journalists are the most vulnerable group in the West Bank.
Palestinian Authorities in the region have adopted similar tactics to their rivals in Gaza. Their actions have also been informed by fear of an eminent uprising. As a result, they are desperate to control the information consumed by the residents.[13] Through these attempts, the authority has resorted to intimidation to keep people from uncovering their dirty secrets and sharing enough truth to inspire a revolution. Consequently, several individuals have fallen victim to unprecedented arrests after posting their concerns on social media platforms. In West Bank, journalists have been arrested and detained for posting sensitive information about the regime.[14] For instance, in 2017, a journalist was arrested for calling on the Palestinian Authorities to respect freedom of expression. He was later charged with attempting a coup on the administration.
Similar to Gaza, Journalists in West Bank have often been intimidated for attempting to stand for the truth. In 2016, one of the press members was arrested for leaking information about how a former leader continued to make decisions in the current regime.[15] With such outrageous charges, the authority tries hard to suppress negative publicity. For instance, an individual cannot call out the administration for alleged corruption without facing detention. By surveilling the Palestinian journalists, the Fatah-led Palestinian Authority can be said to target apathy, thus suppressing the information spread about their violations in the region.
Palestinian Journalists Surveilled by Israeli Government in East Jerusalem
As Palestinian Authorities and their rival organization continue to oppress their citizens in Gaza and West Bank, the conditions do not improve for Palestinians living in East Jerusalem. On the contrary, the Israeli occupation forces have been reported to heighten surveillance of Palestinians living in this region. They have constantly been subjected to multiple layers of monitoring to suppress their freedom of expression.[16] Some reporters have likened the surveillance in East Jerusalem to the social and psychological control proposed in the 18th century by Jeremy Betham. Similar to the panopticon, the monitoring system in this region has succeeded in controlling Palestinian behavior to keep the surveillance running. The system has been designed to make the Palestinians feel watched regardless of location. The IOF has instilled fear by monitoring even their subtlest online actions.[17] As a result, the Palestinians have remained helpless and incapable of organizing resistance.
In East Jerusalem, surveillance has advanced more than in Gaza or West Bank. Apart from impromptu searches and raids as witnessed in Gaza and West Bank, the IOF has invested in the latest technologies, such as additional CCTV cameras deployed on the streets and sophisticated infiltration of social media networks. In 2015, under resolution No. 1775, Israel set aside more than $15.2 million for CCTV surveillance. The ramping up of these gadgets was disguised as needing to enhance security in the area. According to reports by Jerusalem Municipality, East Jerusalem has over 1000 CCTV cameras with facial recognition ability. 10% have been linked to servers for data analysis.[18] Israel has even invested in surveillance cameras that can read letters and numbers from moving license plates. Such investments reveal the levels to which the freedom of Palestinians in East Jerusalem has been compromised.
By 2020, Isreal had been reported to have developed a smartphone application called Blue Wolf, with an embedded massive database containing personal information on Palestinians living in East Jerusalem.[19] This database was populated with data from pictures taken of Palestinian residents without consent. Together with other databases collecting data on Palestinians in West Bank and Gaza, the authorities can track them and fish them out whenever necessary.
In 2022, The European Union (EU) found evidence that phones used by some of its top Eu staff and journalists around the globe were hacked by Israeli spyware called Pegasus. Pegasus also targeted most Palestinian journalists working inside Palestine and abroad
Impact of Surveillance on Palestinian Journalists
As already alluded to, Mass Surveillance has become a tool for acquiring, processing, and analyzing information about large populations without their knowledge. Despite being weaponized by communist nations, it remains an unnecessary means of data collection, considering its invasive nature. In Palestinian territories, the tool has largely been employed to monitor Palestinian lives systematically, enabling the involved regimes to exercise unchecked power and control over the populace. Since the primary objective of surveillance is to obtain information that can help identify imminent threats from suspected individuals or factions, such as drug dealerships and trafficking syndicates, Mass Surveillance implies that the regimes employing the act consider everyone a threat. Therefore, it subscribes to the ideology that any information collected about them can be useful to address hypothetical threats. Such notions cannot usually be reconciled with the fundamental principles and values in democracies. As a result, they are frowned upon in such nations. However, in authoritarian regimes, the practice is welcome because it obstructs power separation to allow the executive branch of government to operate without sufficient oversight.
Although the practice often benefits authoritarian regimes, it is detrimental to citizens. Surveillance usually imparts a chilling effect on the population, often causing individuals to behave strangely on suspicion of being watched. Even people not engaged in any wrongdoings can often find themselves acting strangely when they suspect they are under surveillance. The disadvantage of such an effect is that it impedes citizens’ freedom to exercise their rights. Unfortunately for citizens in communist nations, such an impediment is usually the desired outcome for authoritarian regimes. The massive data often collected by such tyrants are often used to automate decision-making by promoting opaque algorithms that cannot be explained because of the secrecy involved in their design. As a result, the surveillance operations become impossible to oversee, leading to a vicious cycle of oppressing the public.
As Palestinian journalists continue to be surveilled and oppressed in Gaza, West Bank, and East Jerusalem, the climate continues to grow tenser. As a result, the oppression is bound to grow and cause more intense reactions to criticism. Journalists are usually pivotal in enlightening the public about what happens in their surroundings. By depriving them of the freedom of expression, Palestinians are deprived of vital knowledge that directly affects their daily lives. As a result, they cannot find common ground and devise a reasonable solution to their recurring problem.[20] Although the conflict between Israel and Palestine has been persistent, the oppression of the press has contributed to it. With no medium to disseminate the truth, the two sides cannot view the conflict from their enemies’ perspectives. Media oppression by the administration has stunted the possibility of an understanding that could solve the conflict. Only through them can the truth about the conflict be realized.
Following the constant persecution of Palestinian journalists attempting to uncover activities by ruling administrations, one might wonder about the amount of corruption and scandals marring the Israeli-Palestine conflict. As a result, journalists who begin questioning the regimes in power have often posed a threat and are quickly neutralized. Without surveillance and persecution, such journalists are feared to be able to uncover truths that can change the course of the war. Unfortunately, the impact of such truths is unpredictable. However, their containment continues to divide the region, causing unending anxiety among Palestinians.
Apart from the physical torture that Palestinian journalists have endured over the years, surveillance by governmental and non-governmental institutions has inflicted psychological misery on Palestinians. Research in the U.S. illustrated how people could change their behavior when they realize they are under surveillance. The study showed that most people were likely to withdraw their online presence. For instance, after the Snowden revelations, most Muslims steered clear of searching for certain trigger words over the internet.[21] Unfortunately, in Gaza, West Bank, and East Jerusalem, the respective administrations and organizations have been counting on this phenomenon, so scandalous information fails to surface. According to psychologists, exposure to intense surveillance can trigger extreme withdrawal. Experts have indicated that an intense surveillance threat leads to trust loss. As a result, the surveilled population would realize an increase in apathy. Sooner, monitored targets often become accustomed to the practice, and they begin sacrificing their right to privacy. Such intense monitoring can cause people to steer clear of initiatives to organize or mobilize resistance to oppression.[22] For Palestine, continuous surveillance of the citizens will likely lead to self-censoring and retracting into a colonized society.
Summary
In conclusion, surveillance by governmental or non-governmental organizations is frowned upon because it represents the hallmark of authoritarianism. The state of affairs in Palestine highlights the horror that the practice can unleash on a population. Constant surveillance of Palestinian journalists by governmental and non-governmental organizations has continued to fuel the conflict witnessed in the region. Journalists are pivotal in enlightening the public about their surroundings. However, depriving them of the freedom of expression starves Palestinians of vital knowledge that directly affects their daily lives. As a result, they cannot find common ground and devise a reasonable solution to their recurring problem. With unending threats of oppression, Palestinians risk realizing an increased apathy that will soon get them accustomed to the practice. Once the press sacrifices its freedom of expression, the people will likely denounce their right to privacy and steer clear of initiatives to organize or mobilize resistance to oppression, thus recoiling into a state of colonialism.
References
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Heibutzki, Ralph. “Types of Surveillance in Criminal Investigations.” Work, July 1, 2018. https://work.chron.com/types-surveillance-criminal-investigations-9434.
Khorana, Smitha, and Jennifer R. Henrichsen. Journalism after Snowden: the future of the free press in the surveillance state. Columbia University Press, 2017.
Königs, Peter. “Government Surveillance, Privacy, and Legitimacy.” Philosophy & Technology 35, no. 1 (2022): 1-22.
Rasgon, Adam. “7 Reporters Held, ‘Brutally Beaten’ by Hamas for Covering Gaza Protests.” The Times of Israel, March 17, 2019. https://www.timesofisrael.com/7-reporters-held-brutally-beaten-by-hamas-for-covering-gaza-protests/.
Sa’di, Ahmad. “Thorough surveillance: The genesis of Israeli policies of population management, surveillance and political control towards the Palestinian minority.” Thorough surveillance (2016): 1-224.
Santos, Madalena. “Settler colonial surveillance and the criminalization of social media: contradictory implications for Palestinian resistance.” In Protests in the Information Age, pp. 97-114. Routledge, 2018.
Shaban, Omar, Sajjad Safaei, and Mohammed Soliman. “Nowhere to Hide: The Impact of Israel’s Digital Surveillance Regime on the Palestinians.” Middle East Institute, August 31, 2022. https://www.mei.edu/publications/nowhere-hide-impact-israels-digital-surveillance-regime-palestinians.
Staff, Toi. “Hamas Admits Intimidating Foreign Press Who Reported Wrong ‘Message’.” The Times of Israel, August 15, 2014. https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-admits-intimidating-foreign-press-who-reported-wrong-message/.
Ward, Will. “Social media in the Gaza conflict.” Arab Media & Society 7 (2009).
Watkins, Nicole J., and Alena M. James. “Digging into Israel: The sophisticated tunneling network of Hamas.” Journal of Strategic Security 9, 1 (2016): 84-103.
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[1]. Königs, Peter. “Government Surveillance, Privacy, and Legitimacy.” Philosophy & Technology 35, no. 1 (2022), p. 2.
[2]. Heibutzki, Ralph. “Types of Surveillance in Criminal Investigations.” Work, July 1, 2018.
[3]. ibid
[4]. Heibutzki, R. “Types of surveillance in criminal investigations.” Hearst Newspapers Ltd.
[5]. ibid
[6]. Rasgon, Adam. “7 Reporters Held, ‘Brutally Beaten’ by Hamas for Covering Gaza Protests.” The Times of Israel, March 17, 2019.
[7]. ibid
[8]. Watkins, Nicole J., and Alena M. James. “Digging into Israel: The sophisticated tunneling network of Hamas.” Journal of Strategic Security 9, 1 (2016), p. 85.
[9]. Ward, Will. “Social media in the Gaza conflict.” Arab Media & Society 7 (2009).
[10]. Rasgon, Adam. “7 Reporters Held, ‘Brutally Beaten’ by Hamas for Covering Gaza Protests.” The Times of Israel, March 17, 2019.
[11]. Santos, Madalena. “Settler colonial surveillance and the criminalization of social media: contradictory implications for Palestinian resistance.” In Protests in the Information Age, p. 98.
[12]. ibid
[13]. Staff, Toi. “Hamas Admits Intimidating Foreign Press Who Reported Wrong ‘Message’.” The Times of Israel, August 15, 2014.
[14]. Ward, Will. “Social media in the Gaza conflict.” Arab Media & Society 7 (2009).
[15]. ibid
[16]. Shaban, Omar, Sajjad Safaei, and Mohammed Soliman. “Nowhere to Hide: The Impact of Israel’s Digital Surveillance Regime on the Palestinians.” Middle East Institute, August 31, 2022.
[17]. Sa’di, Ahmad. “Thorough surveillance: The genesis of Israeli policies of population management, surveillance and political control towards the Palestinian minority.” Thorough surveillance (2016), p. 120
[18]. Shaban, Omar, Sajjad Safaei, and Mohammed Soliman. “Nowhere to Hide: The Impact of Israel’s Digital Surveillance Regime on the Palestinians.” Middle East Institute, August 31, 2022.
[19]. ibid
[20]. Santos, Madalena. “Settler colonial surveillance and the criminalization of social media: contradictory implications for Palestinian resistance.” In Protests in the Information Age, p. 104
[21]. Khorana, Smitha, and Jennifer R. Henrichsen. Journalism after Snowden: the future of the free press in the surveillance state. Columbia University Press, 2017.
[22]. ibid
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